{
 "version": "1.5.0",
 "about": "Brain functions (hierarchy) and the regions of this drawing responsible for them. 'regions' are ids in regions.json; a parent function also lights up everything its children list. Three levels: group > function > detail. 'summary' is shown as a tooltip and in the right panel; 'refs' are ids in references.json; 'evidence' {level, note} shows a badge.",
 "functions": [
  {
   "id": "thinking",
   "title": "Thinking & self-control",
   "summary": "The 'executive' functions that let you hold goals in mind, plan, choose and hold back impulses.",
   "regions": [
    "prefrontal"
   ],
   "children": [
    {
     "id": "working_memory",
     "title": "Working memory, planning & problem solving",
     "summary": "Keeping information in mind for a few seconds and using it to plan the next steps.",
     "regions": [
      "dmpfc",
      "prefrontal",
      "cingulate_ant"
     ],
     "children": [
      {
       "id": "holding_info",
       "title": "Holding information in mind",
       "summary": "Holding information in mind.",
       "regions": [
        "dmpfc",
        "prefrontal"
       ]
      },
      {
       "id": "planning_steps",
       "title": "Planning steps toward a goal",
       "summary": "Planning steps toward a goal.",
       "regions": [
        "prefrontal",
        "dmpfc"
       ]
      },
      {
       "id": "mental_flex",
       "title": "Switching between tasks",
       "summary": "Switching between tasks.",
       "regions": [
        "prefrontal",
        "cingulate_ant"
       ]
      },
      {
       "id": "problem_solving",
       "title": "Problem solving & reasoning",
       "summary": "Working out something new: holding the pieces of a problem in mind, trying approaches, spotting what follows from what. The lateral prefrontal cortex (on the outer surface, not in this cut) leads, with the medial prefrontal and parietal areas.",
       "regions": [
        "prefrontal",
        "dmpfc",
        "parietal"
       ]
      }
     ]
    },
    {
     "id": "decisions",
     "title": "Judgment & decision making",
     "summary": "Weighing options, rewards and risks; updating choices when outcomes change.",
     "regions": [
      "vmpfc",
      "ofc"
     ],
     "children": [
      {
       "id": "reward_value",
       "title": "Judgment: weighing options, rewards and risks",
       "summary": "Putting a value on each option, what it could bring and what it could cost, and comparing them. The orbitofrontal and ventromedial prefrontal cortex hold these values; people with damage there make poor choices despite normal intelligence.",
       "regions": [
        "ofc",
        "vmpfc",
        "prefrontal"
       ]
      },
      {
       "id": "choice_update",
       "title": "Flexible choice: changing your mind when outcomes change",
       "summary": "Dropping a choice that stopped paying off and switching to a better one. The orbitofrontal cortex updates the value of options from their results; damage makes people keep choosing what no longer works.",
       "regions": [
        "ofc"
       ]
      },
      {
       "id": "gut_feel",
       "title": "Gut feelings in decisions",
       "summary": "Gut feelings in decisions.",
       "regions": [
        "vmpfc",
        "amygdala",
        "hypothalamus"
       ]
      }
     ]
    },
    {
     "id": "impulse",
     "title": "Inhibition & self-monitoring",
     "summary": "Stopping an action that no longer fits, noticing mistakes and conflict.",
     "regions": [
      "prefrontal",
      "cingulate_ant",
      "sma"
     ],
     "children": [
      {
       "id": "stopping",
       "title": "Inhibition: stopping an action or an urge",
       "summary": "Holding back an action, a word or an impulse once it has started, or before it starts. The right lateral prefrontal cortex and the supplementary motor area apply the brake; it matures slowly through adolescence.",
       "regions": [
        "prefrontal",
        "sma"
       ]
      },
      {
       "id": "error_detect",
       "title": "Performance monitoring: mistakes and conflict",
       "summary": "Noticing that something went wrong or that two responses compete, and signalling that more control is needed. The anterior cingulate fires within a fraction of a second of an error, before you are aware of it.",
       "regions": [
        "cingulate_ant",
        "dmpfc"
       ]
      },
      {
       "id": "delay_grat",
       "title": "Waiting for a later reward",
       "summary": "Waiting for a later reward.",
       "regions": [
        "vmpfc",
        "prefrontal"
       ]
      }
     ]
    },
    {
     "id": "attention",
     "title": "Attention",
     "summary": "Choosing what to focus on and keeping it there. (Being awake enough to attend is under Wakefulness & sleep.)",
     "regions": [
      "prefrontal",
      "thalamus",
      "precuneus"
     ],
     "children": [
      {
       "id": "focus_att",
       "title": "Focusing attention",
       "summary": "Focusing attention.",
       "regions": [
        "prefrontal",
        "precuneus",
        "thalamus"
       ]
      },
      {
       "id": "spatial_attention",
       "title": "Visual & spatial attention",
       "summary": "Directing attention to a place in space or to one object among many. The parietal cortex (mainly on the outer surface) steers it, with the cuneus for the visual field and the thalamus as the gate; damage on one side can make people ignore the opposite half of the world.",
       "regions": [
        "parietal",
        "cuneus",
        "thalamus"
       ]
      }
     ]
    },
    {
     "id": "presence",
     "title": "Present-moment awareness",
     "summary": "Mindful presence: noticing what is happening right now (body sensations, sounds, thoughts coming and going) without following a story about it, and knowing that you are noticing. It is not the same as focusing attention (holding one chosen target) or thinking about yourself (the inner story of who you are, your past and plans). In brain scans, present-moment focus comes with LESS activity in the midline 'self-story' areas (medial prefrontal and posterior cingulate cortex, part of the default mode network) and more in body-sense and monitoring areas. Only one of those, the anterior cingulate cortex, lies on this cut down the middle: the insula (body sense, deep in the side of the brain) and the lateral prefrontal control areas on the outer surface cannot be shown.",
     "regions": [
      "cingulate_ant"
     ],
     "evidence": {
      "level": "mixed",
      "note": "Mostly small meditation studies that define the state in different ways. A meta-analysis of 78 imaging studies found that each style of meditation has its own pattern and that regions shared by all styles are the exception (Fox 2016)."
     },
     "refs": [
      "farb2007",
      "brewer2011",
      "hasenkamp2012",
      "lutz2008",
      "fox2016"
     ],
     "children": [
      {
       "id": "open_monitoring",
       "title": "Open awareness (noticing without holding on)",
       "summary": "Letting sensations, sounds and thoughts come and go without picking one out or getting caught up in it - the 'open monitoring' style of meditation, as opposed to focusing on one object (Lutz 2008). After mindfulness training, attending to the present moment instead of the self-story shifted activity away from the medial prefrontal cortex toward body-sense areas such as the insula, which this middle cut does not show (Farb 2007).",
       "regions": [
        "cingulate_ant"
       ],
       "refs": [
        "lutz2008",
        "farb2007"
       ]
      },
      {
       "id": "meta_awareness",
       "title": "Noticing that your mind has wandered",
       "summary": "The moment you realise you have drifted into thought: the salience network (anterior cingulate and insula) becomes active, then control areas on the outer surface of the prefrontal cortex bring attention back. Mind-wandering itself goes with the default mode network (Hasenkamp 2012). Experienced meditators show less default mode activity during meditation (Brewer 2011).",
       "regions": [
        "cingulate_ant"
       ],
       "refs": [
        "hasenkamp2012",
        "brewer2011"
       ]
      }
     ]
    },
    {
     "id": "inner",
     "title": "Inner thought (default mode)",
     "summary": "What the mind does when it is not busy with the outside world: drifting through memories, plans and daydreams, thinking about yourself and others, picturing things. These regions form the default mode network, which is most active at rest and quietens when you attend to the present moment.",
     "regions": [],
     "children": [
      {
       "id": "mind_wandering",
       "title": "Mind-wandering & daydreaming (spontaneous thought)",
       "summary": "Thoughts that come by themselves when attention is not held by a task: replaying the past, rehearsing the future, imagined conversations. The default mode network produces it; it supports planning and creativity but also goes with lapses of attention and, in phone-sampling studies, with lower momentary mood.",
       "regions": [
        "dmpfc",
        "vmpfc",
        "cingulate_post",
        "precuneus"
       ],
       "refs": [
        "raichle2001",
        "killingsworth2010"
       ]
      },
      {
       "id": "self_ref",
       "title": "Thinking about yourself",
       "summary": "The inner story about yourself: your traits, memories and plans, how you come across. It runs in the midline default mode areas (medial prefrontal and posterior cingulate cortex). Simply noticing the present moment is a different mode, see Present-moment awareness under Thinking & self-control.",
       "regions": [
        "dmpfc",
        "vmpfc",
        "cingulate_post"
       ]
      },
      {
       "id": "imagery",
       "title": "Mental imagery (seeing things in the mind's eye)",
       "summary": "Picturing a scene, a face or a route without seeing it. The precuneus and the visual areas re-create the image; the same regions light up when you imagine a place and when you look at it.",
       "regions": [
        "precuneus",
        "occipital"
       ]
      }
     ]
    },
    {
     "id": "social",
     "title": "Social understanding",
     "summary": "Thinking about your own and other people's minds; social conduct.",
     "regions": [
      "dmpfc",
      "vmpfc",
      "ofc",
      "temporal_pole"
     ],
     "children": [
      {
       "id": "tom",
       "title": "Understanding others' minds",
       "summary": "Understanding others' minds.",
       "regions": [
        "dmpfc",
        "temporal_pole",
        "precuneus"
       ]
      },
      {
       "id": "social_conduct",
       "title": "Social conduct & temperament (what people call \"personality\")",
       "summary": "How you treat others and hold yourself in company: tact, restraint, warmth, honesty. Not one function but what emerges from several (inhibition, judging value, regulating emotion), seated in the orbitofrontal and ventromedial prefrontal cortex. Damage there can change the person while leaving intelligence intact, which is why 'personality' is often put down to the frontal lobe.",
       "regions": [
        "ofc",
        "vmpfc",
        "prefrontal"
       ]
      },
      {
       "id": "faces",
       "title": "Reading faces & expressions",
       "summary": "Recognising who someone is and what they feel from their face. The fusiform face area in the temporal lobe (outer surface) does the recognising; the amygdala reads the expression, fear and threat first of all.",
       "regions": [
        "amygdala",
        "temporal"
       ]
      }
     ]
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "id": "emotion",
   "title": "Emotion & motivation",
   "summary": "Feeling, valuing and wanting - the limbic system and its prefrontal partners.",
   "regions": [],
   "children": [
    {
     "id": "fear",
     "title": "Fear & threat",
     "summary": "Detecting threat and tagging memories with feeling.",
     "regions": [
      "amygdala",
      "hypothalamus",
      "midbrain"
     ],
     "children": [
      {
       "id": "threat_detect",
       "title": "Detecting threat",
       "summary": "Detecting threat.",
       "regions": [
        "amygdala",
        "thalamus"
       ]
      },
      {
       "id": "freeze_flight",
       "title": "Freezing and fleeing",
       "summary": "Freezing and fleeing.",
       "regions": [
        "amygdala",
        "hypothalamus",
        "midbrain"
       ]
      },
      {
       "id": "fear_memory",
       "title": "Fear memories",
       "summary": "Fear memories.",
       "regions": [
        "amygdala",
        "hippocampus"
       ]
      }
     ]
    },
    {
     "id": "reward",
     "title": "Reward & pleasure",
     "summary": "Wanting and liking: dopamine and the septal area.",
     "regions": [
      "tegmentum",
      "septal",
      "vmpfc",
      "ofc"
     ],
     "children": [
      {
       "id": "wanting",
       "title": "Wanting (dopamine)",
       "summary": "Wanting (dopamine).",
       "regions": [
        "tegmentum",
        "septal",
        "nucleus_accumbens",
        "substantia_nigra"
       ]
      },
      {
       "id": "liking",
       "title": "Liking and pleasure",
       "summary": "Liking and pleasure.",
       "regions": [
        "septal",
        "ofc",
        "vmpfc",
        "nucleus_accumbens"
       ]
      },
      {
       "id": "learning_reward",
       "title": "Learning from reward",
       "summary": "Learning from reward.",
       "regions": [
        "tegmentum",
        "ofc",
        "nucleus_accumbens",
        "caudate"
       ]
      }
     ]
    },
    {
     "id": "motivation",
     "title": "Motivation & effort",
     "summary": "Deciding whether something is worth the effort, and keeping going. The anterior cingulate weighs the cost of effort against the reward; the nucleus accumbens and the dopamine neurons of the midbrain supply the drive. Apathy after damage here is a loss of wanting, not of ability.",
     "regions": [],
     "children": [
      {
       "id": "effort",
       "title": "Deciding whether something is worth the effort",
       "summary": "Weighing how much work a goal will take against what it is worth, and committing to it. Dopamine in the nucleus accumbens tips the balance toward trying; the anterior cingulate tracks the cost.",
       "regions": [
        "cingulate_ant",
        "nucleus_accumbens",
        "tegmentum"
       ]
      }
     ]
    },
    {
     "id": "emo_reg",
     "title": "Emotion regulation",
     "summary": "Top-down regulation of emotional reactions.",
     "regions": [
      "vmpfc",
      "cingulate_ant",
      "dmpfc"
     ],
     "children": [
      {
       "id": "reappraisal",
       "title": "Reappraisal (seeing it differently)",
       "summary": "Reappraisal (seeing it differently).",
       "regions": [
        "dmpfc",
        "vmpfc"
       ]
      },
      {
       "id": "extinction",
       "title": "Calming fear (extinction)",
       "summary": "Calming fear (extinction).",
       "regions": [
        "vmpfc",
        "amygdala",
        "hippocampus"
       ]
      }
     ]
    },
    {
     "id": "stress",
     "title": "Stress response",
     "summary": "Hormonal and autonomic 'fight or flight'.",
     "regions": [
      "hypothalamus",
      "pituitary",
      "amygdala",
      "cingulate_ant",
      "medulla",
      "locus_coeruleus"
     ],
     "children": [
      {
       "id": "hpa",
       "title": "Stress hormones (HPA axis)",
       "summary": "Stress hormones (HPA axis).",
       "regions": [
        "hypothalamus",
        "pituitary"
       ]
      },
      {
       "id": "fight_flight",
       "title": "Fight-or-flight nerves",
       "summary": "Fight-or-flight nerves.",
       "regions": [
        "hypothalamus",
        "medulla",
        "amygdala"
       ]
      }
     ]
    },
    {
     "id": "coping",
     "title": "Coping with stress & setbacks",
     "summary": "Getting back on an even keel after upset: calming the emotion, switching the body's stress response off, finding something to do about the problem. The prefrontal cortex (above all the ventromedial part) and the hippocampus rein in the amygdala and the hypothalamus. Trouble with this is one of the best-supported shared risk factors for anxiety, depression and, in children, frequent outbursts; it runs both ways, as those conditions also wear coping down, and it matures slowly, so tantrums are normal in toddlers and only frequent, long or aggressive ones point to a problem.",
     "regions": [
      "vmpfc",
      "dmpfc",
      "cingulate_ant",
      "amygdala",
      "hippocampus",
      "hypothalamus"
     ],
     "refs": [
      "aldao2010",
      "compas2017",
      "ulrichlai2009",
      "wakschlag2012"
     ],
     "evidence": {
      "level": "moderate",
      "note": "The link between poor emotion regulation and anxiety, depression and behaviour problems is backed by large meta-analyses (Aldao 2010, 114 studies; Compas 2017, 212 studies); the brain circuitry comes from imaging and animal work."
     },
     "children": [
      {
       "id": "calm_down",
       "title": "Calming down after upset",
       "summary": "Bringing a strong emotion back down: reappraising, distracting, soothing yourself. The ventromedial prefrontal cortex damps the amygdala; after a night without sleep this link weakens and emotional reactions grow by about 60 %.",
       "regions": [
        "vmpfc",
        "dmpfc",
        "amygdala"
       ],
       "refs": [
        "yoo2007",
        "aldao2010"
       ]
      },
      {
       "id": "stress_off",
       "title": "Switching the stress response off",
       "summary": "Ending the release of stress hormones once the danger has passed. The hippocampus and medial prefrontal cortex inhibit the hypothalamus; when this brake is weak, stress hormones stay high and damage the hippocampus itself.",
       "regions": [
        "hippocampus",
        "vmpfc",
        "hypothalamus",
        "pituitary"
       ],
       "refs": [
        "ulrichlai2009"
       ]
      },
      {
       "id": "child_coping",
       "title": "Coping in young children",
       "summary": "Children only gradually learn to settle themselves; until then they borrow a caregiver's calm. Most preschoolers have tantrums, but daily, long, unpredictable or aggressive ones are not typical and go with later anxiety, low mood or behaviour problems. Sleep loss, hunger and illness all lower the threshold.",
       "regions": [
        "vmpfc",
        "cingulate_ant",
        "amygdala"
       ],
       "refs": [
        "wakschlag2012",
        "compas2017",
        "berger2012"
       ]
      }
     ]
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "id": "memory",
   "title": "Memory",
   "summary": "Forming, storing and recalling memories.",
   "regions": [],
   "children": [
    {
     "id": "mem_short",
     "title": "Short-term memory",
     "summary": "Keeping a few things (about 4 items) in mind for seconds, like a number you were just told. It is held by ongoing activity in the prefrontal and parietal cortex rather than by lasting changes at synapses, so it fades unless rehearsed. Using and changing what is held is working memory (under Thinking & self-control); keeping it for longer needs the hippocampus.",
     "regions": [
      "prefrontal",
      "parietal",
      "temporal"
     ],
     "refs": [
      "cowan2001"
     ],
     "children": [
      {
       "id": "stm_verbal",
       "title": "Words and numbers (verbal)",
       "summary": "Holding words or digits by repeating them silently - an inner voice that uses language areas of the frontal and temporal lobes.",
       "regions": [
        "temporal",
        "frontal"
       ]
      },
      {
       "id": "stm_visual",
       "title": "Pictures and places (visual-spatial)",
       "summary": "Holding what something looked like and where it was - the visual and parietal cortex keep the image active.",
       "regions": [
        "parietal",
        "precuneus",
        "occipital"
       ]
      }
     ]
    },
    {
     "id": "mem_new",
     "title": "Forming new memories",
     "summary": "Turning experiences into lasting memories (the hippocampal / Papez circuit).",
     "regions": [
      "hippocampus",
      "parahippocampal",
      "fornix",
      "mammillary",
      "thalamus",
      "cingulate_post"
     ],
     "children": [
      {
       "id": "encoding",
       "title": "Encoding new experiences (through the parahippocampal gateway)",
       "summary": "Turning what is happening now into a memory trace. The parahippocampal cortex gathers what the senses bring and passes it to the hippocampus, which binds the pieces (where, when, who) into one event.",
       "regions": [
        "hippocampus",
        "parahippocampal"
       ]
      },
      {
       "id": "consolidation",
       "title": "Consolidation (much of it during sleep)",
       "summary": "Consolidation (much of it during sleep).",
       "regions": [
        "hippocampus",
        "thalamus",
        "cingulate_post"
       ]
      },
      {
       "id": "papez",
       "title": "Papez memory circuit",
       "summary": "Papez memory circuit.",
       "regions": [
        "hippocampus",
        "fornix",
        "mammillary",
        "thalamus",
        "cingulate_post"
       ]
      },
      {
       "id": "theta",
       "title": "Theta rhythm: the septal pacemaker",
       "summary": "A slow 4-8 Hz rhythm that the septal area imposes on the hippocampus during attentive exploration and REM sleep; it times when memories are laid down and replayed.",
       "regions": [
        "septal",
        "hippocampus"
       ]
      }
     ]
    },
    {
     "id": "mem_recall",
     "title": "Recalling your own past",
     "summary": "Autobiographical memory and imagining - the default mode network.",
     "regions": [
      "precuneus",
      "cingulate_post",
      "hippocampus",
      "vmpfc"
     ],
     "children": [
      {
       "id": "episodic",
       "title": "Remembering events",
       "summary": "Remembering events.",
       "regions": [
        "precuneus",
        "hippocampus",
        "cingulate_post"
       ]
      },
      {
       "id": "future",
       "title": "Imagining the future",
       "summary": "Imagining the future.",
       "regions": [
        "vmpfc",
        "hippocampus",
        "precuneus"
       ]
      }
     ]
    },
    {
     "id": "mem_facts",
     "title": "Knowing facts, names & people (semantic memory)",
     "summary": "Semantic memory: what things and people are.",
     "regions": [
      "temporal_pole",
      "temporal"
     ],
     "children": [
      {
       "id": "names_faces",
       "title": "Names and faces",
       "summary": "Names and faces.",
       "regions": [
        "temporal_pole",
        "temporal"
       ]
      },
      {
       "id": "word_meaning",
       "title": "Word meanings",
       "summary": "Word meanings.",
       "regions": [
        "temporal"
       ]
      },
      {
       "id": "visual_memory",
       "title": "Remembering what things look like",
       "summary": "Knowing the look of familiar objects, letters and places. The lingual gyrus and the temporal lobe keep these visual descriptions; damage can leave someone unable to recognise what they see.",
       "regions": [
        "lingual",
        "temporal"
       ]
      }
     ]
    },
    {
     "id": "mem_places",
     "title": "Places & navigation",
     "summary": "Maps of places and scenes.",
     "regions": [
      "hippocampus",
      "parahippocampal",
      "precuneus"
     ],
     "children": [
      {
       "id": "place_maps",
       "title": "Place maps",
       "summary": "Place maps.",
       "regions": [
        "hippocampus",
        "mammillary"
       ]
      },
      {
       "id": "scenes",
       "title": "Recognising scenes",
       "summary": "Recognising scenes.",
       "regions": [
        "parahippocampal"
       ]
      }
     ]
    },
    {
     "id": "mem_motor",
     "title": "Skills & habits",
     "summary": "Motor skills learned by practice.",
     "regions": [
      "cerebellum",
      "cb_posterior",
      "putamen"
     ],
     "children": [
      {
       "id": "skills",
       "title": "Motor skills",
       "summary": "Motor skills.",
       "regions": [
        "cerebellum",
        "cb_posterior",
        "putamen"
       ]
      },
      {
       "id": "timing",
       "title": "Timing",
       "summary": "Timing.",
       "regions": [
        "cerebellum"
       ]
      },
      {
       "id": "habits",
       "title": "Habits: actions on autopilot",
       "summary": "Sequences you no longer think about: tying laces, a route home, a nervous gesture. With repetition, control shifts from the goal-directed caudate to the putamen, which runs the sequence as a unit. Habits are hard to break because they no longer depend on the outcome.",
       "regions": [
        "putamen",
        "caudate"
       ]
      }
     ]
    },
    {
     "id": "emo_memory",
     "title": "Emotional memory & meaning",
     "summary": "The feeling attached to a memory or a person, and why emotional events are remembered better. The amygdala tags experiences with emotional weight as the hippocampus stores them; the temporal pole holds the social and emotional meaning of people and things.",
     "regions": [],
     "children": [
      {
       "id": "emo_tag",
       "title": "Tagging memories with feeling",
       "summary": "Strengthening a memory because it mattered: the amygdala releases stress hormones and noradrenaline onto the hippocampus at the moment of encoding, which is why frightening or joyful events are recalled in detail.",
       "regions": [
        "amygdala",
        "hippocampus",
        "temporal_pole"
       ]
      }
     ]
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "id": "language",
   "title": "Language",
   "summary": "Understanding and producing language (mostly on the outer surface of the left hemisphere).",
   "regions": [],
   "children": [
    {
     "id": "lang_underst",
     "title": "Understanding language",
     "summary": "Meaning of words and sentences (Wernicke's area on the outer temporal lobe).",
     "regions": [
      "temporal",
      "temporal_pole"
     ],
     "children": [
      {
       "id": "words",
       "title": "Word meaning",
       "summary": "Word meaning.",
       "regions": [
        "temporal"
       ]
      },
      {
       "id": "sentences",
       "title": "Sentences and meaning",
       "summary": "Sentences and meaning.",
       "regions": [
        "temporal",
        "temporal_pole"
       ]
      }
     ]
    },
    {
     "id": "lang_prod",
     "title": "Producing speech",
     "summary": "Broca's area on the outer frontal lobe; SMA starts speech.",
     "regions": [
      "frontal",
      "sma"
     ],
     "children": [
      {
       "id": "speech_start",
       "title": "Starting to speak",
       "summary": "Starting to speak.",
       "regions": [
        "sma"
       ]
      },
      {
       "id": "articulation",
       "title": "Articulation",
       "summary": "Articulation.",
       "regions": [
        "frontal",
        "cerebellum",
        "medulla"
       ]
      },
      {
       "id": "broca",
       "title": "Choosing words & grammar (Broca's area, outer surface)",
       "summary": "Finding the words and putting them in order. Broca's area in the left frontal lobe (on the outer surface, not in this cut) plans speech; damage leaves understanding intact but speech slow and telegraphic.",
       "regions": [
        "frontal"
       ]
      }
     ]
    },
    {
     "id": "reading",
     "title": "Reading, writing & calculation",
     "summary": "Letter shapes (lingual / visual cortex) linked to language areas.",
     "regions": [
      "lingual",
      "v1",
      "parietal",
      "cc_splenium"
     ],
     "children": [
      {
       "id": "letters",
       "title": "Letter shapes",
       "summary": "Letter shapes.",
       "regions": [
        "lingual",
        "v1"
       ]
      },
      {
       "id": "reading_link",
       "title": "Linking the two visual fields",
       "summary": "Linking the two visual fields.",
       "regions": [
        "cc_splenium"
       ]
      },
      {
       "id": "writing_calc",
       "title": "Writing and calculation (outer parietal lobe)",
       "summary": "Spelling out words by hand and handling numbers: the angular and supramarginal gyri of the parietal lobe (outer surface), which link seen symbols with sounds, meanings and quantities.",
       "regions": [
        "parietal"
       ]
      }
     ]
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "id": "movement",
   "title": "Movement",
   "summary": "Planning, launching and fine-tuning every voluntary movement, plus balance and posture.",
   "regions": [],
   "children": [
    {
     "id": "move_plan",
     "title": "Choosing & planning movements",
     "summary": "Preparing and ordering movements before they happen, especially self-started ones.",
     "regions": [
      "sma",
      "caudate",
      "putamen"
     ],
     "children": [
      {
       "id": "sequences",
       "title": "Movement sequences",
       "summary": "Movement sequences.",
       "regions": [
        "sma",
        "putamen",
        "globus_pallidus"
       ]
      },
      {
       "id": "self_started",
       "title": "Self-started movement",
       "summary": "Self-started movement.",
       "regions": [
        "sma",
        "cingulate_ant"
       ]
      },
      {
       "id": "gating",
       "title": "Selecting and gating actions (basal ganglia loop)",
       "summary": "Letting one movement through and holding the others back. The striatum (caudate and putamen) receives the cortex's plans, the globus pallidus keeps everything braked, and dopamine from the substantia nigra sets how easily a movement is released; the loop returns to the cortex through the thalamus. Too little dopamine and movements will not start (Parkinson's); too little braking and they cannot be stopped (Huntington's, tics).",
       "regions": [
        "caudate",
        "putamen",
        "globus_pallidus",
        "substantia_nigra",
        "thalamus"
       ]
      }
     ]
    },
    {
     "id": "move_exec",
     "title": "Carrying out movement",
     "summary": "The motor command itself, sent down the spinal cord (leg and foot on the medial face).",
     "regions": [
      "motor",
      "medulla",
      "pons",
      "globus_pallidus"
     ],
     "children": [
      {
       "id": "legs",
       "title": "Leg and foot movement",
       "summary": "Leg and foot movement.",
       "regions": [
        "motor"
       ]
      },
      {
       "id": "corticospinal",
       "title": "Command down the spinal cord",
       "summary": "Command down the spinal cord.",
       "regions": [
        "motor",
        "pons",
        "medulla"
       ]
      },
      {
       "id": "force",
       "title": "Force and direction of a movement",
       "summary": "The primary motor cortex sets how hard and which way: each of its neurons fires most for one direction of movement, and the population as a whole encodes the movement vector.",
       "regions": [
        "motor"
       ]
      },
      {
       "id": "bimanual",
       "title": "Using both hands together",
       "summary": "Coordinating the two hands in one action: the supplementary motor area plans the joint movement and the body of the corpus callosum lets the two motor cortices share the plan. Cutting the callosum leaves each hand to its own devices.",
       "regions": [
        "sma",
        "cc_body"
       ]
      }
     ]
    },
    {
     "id": "coordination",
     "title": "Coordination & motor learning",
     "summary": "Smoothing movement, timing and learning new motor skills.",
     "regions": [
      "cerebellum",
      "cb_posterior",
      "cb_anterior",
      "thalamus"
     ],
     "children": [
      {
       "id": "smoothing",
       "title": "Smoothing movement",
       "summary": "Smoothing movement.",
       "regions": [
        "cb_posterior",
        "cb_anterior"
       ]
      },
      {
       "id": "motor_learning",
       "title": "Motor learning",
       "summary": "Motor learning.",
       "regions": [
        "cerebellum",
        "thalamus"
       ]
      }
     ]
    },
    {
     "id": "balance",
     "title": "Balance & posture",
     "summary": "Keeping upright and steady with signals from the inner ear.",
     "regions": [
      "cb_flocculonodular",
      "cb_anterior",
      "pons",
      "medulla"
     ],
     "children": [
      {
       "id": "vestibular",
       "title": "Inner-ear balance",
       "summary": "Inner-ear balance.",
       "regions": [
        "cb_flocculonodular",
        "medulla"
       ]
      },
      {
       "id": "posture",
       "title": "Posture, muscle tone & gait",
       "summary": "Keeping the body upright and the muscles at the right tension while walking. The anterior lobe of the cerebellum and the pons adjust tone and the rhythm of steps; damage gives a wide, unsteady gait.",
       "regions": [
        "cb_anterior",
        "pons"
       ]
      }
     ]
    },
    {
     "id": "eye_move",
     "title": "Eye movements & orienting",
     "summary": "Turning the eyes and head toward what you see or hear.",
     "regions": [
      "tectum",
      "tegmentum",
      "cb_flocculonodular"
     ],
     "children": [
      {
       "id": "saccades",
       "title": "Quick eye jumps (saccades)",
       "summary": "Quick eye jumps (saccades).",
       "regions": [
        "tectum"
       ]
      },
      {
       "id": "gaze_hold",
       "title": "Holding gaze steady (vestibulo-ocular reflex)",
       "summary": "Keeping the eyes on a target while the head moves: the flocculonodular lobe uses the inner ear's signal to turn the eyes the opposite way, so the world stays still.",
       "regions": [
        "cb_flocculonodular"
       ]
      }
     ]
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "id": "senses",
   "title": "Senses",
   "summary": "Where sensations arrive and are interpreted.",
   "regions": [],
   "children": [
    {
     "id": "vision",
     "title": "Vision",
     "summary": "From the optic chiasm through the thalamus to the visual cortex.",
     "regions": [
      "optic_chiasm",
      "thalamus",
      "v1",
      "cuneus",
      "lingual",
      "occipital",
      "tectum"
     ],
     "children": [
      {
       "id": "early_vision",
       "title": "Edges, colour and motion",
       "summary": "Edges, colour and motion.",
       "regions": [
        "v1"
       ]
      },
      {
       "id": "fields",
       "title": "Upper and lower visual field",
       "summary": "Upper and lower visual field.",
       "regions": [
        "cuneus",
        "lingual"
       ]
      },
      {
       "id": "visual_relay",
       "title": "Relay to the cortex (LGN)",
       "summary": "Relay to the cortex (LGN).",
       "regions": [
        "thalamus",
        "optic_chiasm"
       ]
      },
      {
       "id": "orienting",
       "title": "Orienting to sights",
       "summary": "Orienting to sights.",
       "regions": [
        "tectum"
       ]
      },
      {
       "id": "object_recog",
       "title": "Recognising objects, faces & scenes",
       "summary": "Knowing what you are looking at. Visual information leaves the occipital lobe along the temporal lobe, where neurons respond to whole objects, faces and places; the parahippocampal area specialises in scenes.",
       "regions": [
        "temporal",
        "lingual",
        "parahippocampal"
       ]
      }
     ]
    },
    {
     "id": "touch",
     "title": "Touch & body position",
     "summary": "Touch, temperature and body position (leg and foot on the medial face).",
     "regions": [
      "s1",
      "thalamus",
      "parietal"
     ],
     "children": [
      {
       "id": "touch_map",
       "title": "Body map of touch",
       "summary": "Body map of touch.",
       "regions": [
        "s1"
       ]
      },
      {
       "id": "proprio",
       "title": "Body position",
       "summary": "Body position.",
       "regions": [
        "s1",
        "cerebellum"
       ]
      }
     ]
    },
    {
     "id": "pain",
     "title": "Pain & temperature",
     "summary": "Where pain is located (somatosensory) and how unpleasant it feels (cingulate).",
     "regions": [
      "s1",
      "thalamus",
      "cingulate_ant"
     ],
     "children": [
      {
       "id": "pain_where",
       "title": "Where it hurts",
       "summary": "Where it hurts.",
       "regions": [
        "s1",
        "thalamus"
       ]
      },
      {
       "id": "pain_feel",
       "title": "How bad it feels",
       "summary": "How bad it feels.",
       "regions": [
        "cingulate_ant"
       ]
      }
     ]
    },
    {
     "id": "hearing",
     "title": "Hearing",
     "summary": "Sound relays in the midbrain and thalamus; hearing cortex is on the outer temporal lobe.",
     "regions": [
      "tectum",
      "thalamus",
      "temporal"
     ],
     "children": [
      {
       "id": "aud_relay",
       "title": "Auditory relay",
       "summary": "Auditory relay.",
       "regions": [
        "tectum",
        "thalamus"
       ]
      },
      {
       "id": "aud_cortex",
       "title": "Hearing cortex (outer temporal lobe)",
       "summary": "Hearing cortex (outer temporal lobe).",
       "regions": [
        "temporal"
       ]
      }
     ]
    },
    {
     "id": "smell",
     "title": "Smell & taste",
     "summary": "The only sense that reaches the cortex without passing through the thalamus.",
     "regions": [
      "olfactory_bulb",
      "ofc",
      "amygdala"
     ],
     "children": [
      {
       "id": "smell_detect",
       "title": "Detecting odours",
       "summary": "Detecting odours.",
       "regions": [
        "olfactory_bulb"
       ]
      },
      {
       "id": "smell_emo",
       "title": "Smell and emotion",
       "summary": "Smell and emotion.",
       "regions": [
        "amygdala",
        "ofc"
       ]
      },
      {
       "id": "taste_value",
       "title": "Is it good to eat? Taste and smell value",
       "summary": "Deciding whether a food is worth eating now: the orbitofrontal cortex combines taste, smell and texture into a value that falls as you fill up on that food (sensory-specific satiety).",
       "regions": [
        "ofc"
       ]
      }
     ]
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "id": "wake_sleep",
   "title": "Wakefulness & sleep",
   "summary": "The brain's overall state - awake, alert or asleep - set by the brainstem and hypothalamus. Every other function depends on it.",
   "regions": [],
   "children": [
    {
     "id": "arousal_state",
     "title": "Arousal & wakefulness",
     "summary": "Keeping the cortex switched on and alert: arousal signals rise from the brainstem and hypothalamus through the thalamus.",
     "regions": [
      "pons",
      "midbrain",
      "thalamus",
      "hypothalamus"
     ],
     "children": [
      {
       "id": "arousal",
       "title": "Arousal system (brainstem to cortex)",
       "summary": "Nuclei in the brainstem (locus coeruleus in the pons, the midbrain reticular formation) send wake-up signals through the thalamus to the whole cortex.",
       "regions": [
        "pons",
        "midbrain",
        "thalamus",
        "locus_coeruleus"
       ]
      },
      {
       "id": "wake",
       "title": "Staying awake (orexin)",
       "summary": "Staying awake (orexin).",
       "regions": [
        "hypothalamus",
        "midbrain"
       ]
      },
      {
       "id": "consciousness",
       "title": "Alertness & consciousness",
       "summary": "Being awake and aware. The thalamus and the brainstem arousal system switch the cortex on; the locus coeruleus sets how alert; the precuneus and posterior cingulate are among the first to quieten under anaesthesia and in deep sleep.",
       "regions": [
        "thalamus",
        "locus_coeruleus",
        "precuneus",
        "cingulate_post"
       ]
      }
     ]
    },
    {
     "id": "sleep",
     "title": "Sleep & body clock",
     "summary": "Switching into sleep, REM sleep, and the daily body clock (melatonin).",
     "regions": [
      "hypothalamus",
      "pineal",
      "pons"
     ],
     "children": [
      {
       "id": "clock",
       "title": "Body clock",
       "summary": "Body clock.",
       "regions": [
        "hypothalamus",
        "pineal"
       ]
      },
      {
       "id": "rem",
       "title": "REM sleep",
       "summary": "REM sleep.",
       "regions": [
        "pons"
       ]
      }
     ]
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "id": "body",
   "title": "Keeping the body in balance",
   "summary": "Automatic life-support and homeostasis.",
   "regions": [],
   "children": [
    {
     "id": "breathing",
     "title": "Breathing",
     "summary": "Breathing rhythm is generated in the brainstem.",
     "regions": [
      "medulla",
      "pons"
     ],
     "children": [
      {
       "id": "rhythm",
       "title": "Breathing rhythm",
       "summary": "Breathing rhythm.",
       "regions": [
        "medulla"
       ]
      },
      {
       "id": "breath_adj",
       "title": "Adjusting breathing",
       "summary": "Adjusting breathing.",
       "regions": [
        "pons"
       ]
      }
     ]
    },
    {
     "id": "heart",
     "title": "Heart, blood pressure & autonomic control",
     "summary": "Cardiovascular control centres.",
     "regions": [
      "medulla",
      "hypothalamus"
     ],
     "children": [
      {
       "id": "heart_rate",
       "title": "Heart rate",
       "summary": "Heart rate.",
       "regions": [
        "medulla"
       ]
      },
      {
       "id": "bp",
       "title": "Blood pressure",
       "summary": "Blood pressure.",
       "regions": [
        "medulla",
        "hypothalamus"
       ]
      },
      {
       "id": "autonomic",
       "title": "Autonomic control from the cortex (gut, sweating, heart)",
       "summary": "The cortex's say over the body's automatic settings: the ventromedial prefrontal cortex and the anterior cingulate adjust heart rate, sweating and gut activity to emotions and effort, through the hypothalamus and the medulla.",
       "regions": [
        "vmpfc",
        "cingulate_ant",
        "hypothalamus",
        "medulla"
       ]
      }
     ]
    },
    {
     "id": "temperature",
     "title": "Body temperature",
     "summary": "The body's thermostat.",
     "regions": [
      "hypothalamus"
     ]
    },
    {
     "id": "hunger",
     "title": "Hunger, thirst & glucose sensing",
     "summary": "Energy balance, drinking and sensing blood glucose.",
     "regions": [
      "hypothalamus",
      "thalamus"
     ],
     "children": [
      {
       "id": "appetite",
       "title": "Appetite",
       "summary": "Appetite.",
       "regions": [
        "hypothalamus"
       ]
      },
      {
       "id": "thirst",
       "title": "Thirst",
       "summary": "Thirst.",
       "regions": [
        "hypothalamus"
       ]
      },
      {
       "id": "glucose_sense",
       "title": "Glucose sensing",
       "summary": "Glucose sensing.",
       "regions": [
        "hypothalamus",
        "thalamus"
       ]
      }
     ]
    },
    {
     "id": "hormones",
     "title": "Hormones",
     "summary": "The hypothalamus runs the pituitary gland.",
     "regions": [
      "hypothalamus",
      "pituitary",
      "pineal"
     ],
     "children": [
      {
       "id": "pit_control",
       "title": "Pituitary control",
       "summary": "Pituitary control.",
       "regions": [
        "hypothalamus",
        "pituitary"
       ]
      },
      {
       "id": "melatonin",
       "title": "Melatonin",
       "summary": "Melatonin.",
       "regions": [
        "pineal"
       ]
      },
      {
       "id": "pit_hormones",
       "title": "Growth, thyroid & reproductive hormones",
       "summary": "The pituitary releases growth hormone, thyroid-stimulating hormone and the hormones that run the ovaries and testes, each under a releasing signal from the hypothalamus.",
       "regions": [
        "pituitary",
        "hypothalamus"
       ]
      },
      {
       "id": "oxytocin_vp",
       "title": "Oxytocin & vasopressin",
       "summary": "Two hormones made in the hypothalamus and released from the back of the pituitary: oxytocin for birth, milk let-down and bonding; vasopressin for holding on to water and raising blood pressure.",
       "regions": [
        "hypothalamus",
        "pituitary"
       ]
      }
     ]
    },
    {
     "id": "reflexes",
     "title": "Reflexes, swallowing & coughing",
     "summary": "Protective reflexes of the brainstem.",
     "regions": [
      "medulla",
      "pons",
      "midbrain"
     ],
     "children": [
      {
       "id": "swallow",
       "title": "Swallowing, coughing and vomiting",
       "summary": "Protective reflexes run by the medulla: swallowing in the right order, coughing to clear the airway, vomiting to empty the stomach.",
       "regions": [
        "medulla"
       ]
      },
      {
       "id": "pupil",
       "title": "Pupil reflexes",
       "summary": "Pupil reflexes.",
       "regions": [
        "midbrain",
        "tectum"
       ]
      }
     ]
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "id": "wiring",
   "title": "Wiring & support",
   "summary": "Cables between regions and the fluid system.",
   "regions": [],
   "children": [
    {
     "id": "hemis",
     "title": "Linking left and right",
     "summary": "Corpus callosum.",
     "regions": [
      "corpus_callosum",
      "cc_body",
      "cc_genu",
      "cc_rostrum",
      "cc_splenium"
     ],
     "children": [
      {
       "id": "genu_link",
       "title": "Linking the frontal lobes",
       "summary": "Linking the frontal lobes.",
       "regions": [
        "cc_genu"
       ]
      },
      {
       "id": "splenium_link",
       "title": "Linking the visual areas",
       "summary": "Linking the visual areas.",
       "regions": [
        "cc_splenium"
       ]
      },
      {
       "id": "cc_body_link",
       "title": "Linking the motor and sensory areas",
       "summary": "The body of the corpus callosum carries fibres between the two motor and sensory cortices, so the two sides of the body can be felt and moved as one.",
       "regions": [
        "cc_body"
       ]
      },
      {
       "id": "cc_rostrum_link",
       "title": "Linking the orbitofrontal cortex",
       "summary": "The rostrum, the beak-like underside of the corpus callosum, joins the two orbitofrontal cortices.",
       "regions": [
        "cc_rostrum"
       ]
      }
     ]
    },
    {
     "id": "relay",
     "title": "Relaying signals",
     "summary": "The thalamus is the main relay.",
     "regions": [
      "thalamus"
     ],
     "children": [
      {
       "id": "sensory_relay",
       "title": "Sensory relay",
       "summary": "Sensory relay.",
       "regions": [
        "thalamus"
       ]
      },
      {
       "id": "motor_loops",
       "title": "Motor loops",
       "summary": "Motor loops.",
       "regions": [
        "thalamus",
        "cerebellum"
       ]
      },
      {
       "id": "cb_relay",
       "title": "Relay to the cerebellum",
       "summary": "The pons passes a copy of every movement plan from the cortex to the cerebellum, which checks it against what the body is doing.",
       "regions": [
        "pons"
       ]
      },
      {
       "id": "limbic_relay",
       "title": "Limbic relay",
       "summary": "The septal area and the fornix tie the hippocampus to the hypothalamus and the brainstem, so memory, emotion and the body's state can shape one another.",
       "regions": [
        "septal",
        "fornix"
       ]
      }
     ]
    },
    {
     "id": "modulators",
     "title": "Chemical supply (neuromodulators)",
     "summary": "A few small clusters of neurons supply the whole brain with the chemicals that set its state: dopamine from the substantia nigra and ventral tegmental area, noradrenaline from the locus coeruleus, serotonin from the raphe, acetylcholine from the septal area and brainstem. Each is described, with where it is made and how much each region has, on the Neurotransmitters tab.",
     "regions": [
      "substantia_nigra",
      "tegmentum",
      "locus_coeruleus",
      "septal",
      "pons"
     ]
    },
    {
     "id": "csf",
     "title": "Cerebrospinal fluid",
     "summary": "Making and circulating CSF.",
     "regions": [
      "lateral_ventricle",
      "third_ventricle",
      "aqueduct",
      "fourth_ventricle"
     ],
     "children": [
      {
       "id": "csf_make",
       "title": "Making CSF",
       "summary": "Making CSF.",
       "regions": [
        "lateral_ventricle"
       ]
      },
      {
       "id": "csf_flow",
       "title": "CSF flow",
       "summary": "CSF flow.",
       "regions": [
        "third_ventricle",
        "aqueduct",
        "fourth_ventricle"
       ]
      }
     ]
    }
   ]
  }
 ]
}